1. John Calvin
   Augustine of Hippo
2. Pope Leo X
   Martin Luther

Martin Luther's "95 Theses" changed the course of Christian history, as it directly attacked the Catholic Church, the dominant authority at the time. Luther's biggest conclusion was that Christians should rely on the Bible for guidance and not on deeds, like paying indulgences.

1. Printing press
   Mechanical clock
2. Heavy plow
   Wheelbarrow

The printing press allowed knowledge to flow much more freely across Europe and gave many more people access to sources of information that they didn't have before. This new way of exchanging ideas would help launch the Scientific Revolution a century later.

1. Britain
   Italy
2. Russia
   Spain

Important artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were prominent figures in the Italian Renaissance, producing some of the greatest art the world has ever seen. Their work influenced the rest of Europe and helped drag the region out of the period known as the Dark Ages.

1. Odyssey
   History of the Peloponnesian War
2. Medea
   Dream of Scipio

Following the telling of the Trojan War in the "Illiad," the "Odyssey" is an epic poem that details the journey of Odysseus back to his home in Ithaca. The journey is filled with many perils that Odysseus has to overcome while losing his crew in the process.

1. Sweden
   Italy
2. Spain
   Normandy

After his conquest of England, William the Conqueror built castles across the country similar to those found in Normandy. Prior to William's castle-building initiative, England had very few castles, which were actually considered a French invention.

1. Hundred Years' War
   Thirty Years' War
2. Napoleonic Wars
   War of the Roses

Initiated by the poor leadership of King Henry VI, the War of the Roses saw the crown of England change hands several times between 1455 and 1485. The war finally came to an end when King Henry VII defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, giving rise to the House of Tudor.

1. Muslims
   Protestants
2. Jews
   Catholics

Anti-Semitism was prevalent in Europe well before Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. In fact, Jewish discrimination can be traced back to the Middle Ages, when Jews were forced into select areas known as ghettos and denied full citizenship.

1. Capitalism
   Revolution
2. Socialism
   Taxes

Though Marxism had supporters all over Europe, this new ideology became most prevalent in Russia. Realizing their country was gradually growing weaker, the Russian populace used the ideas of Karl Marx to launch a revolution against the last Tsar, Nicholas II.

1. Philip I
   Ferdinand II
2. Juan Carlos I
   Alfonso XIII

Ferdinand II helped unite a divided Spain when he married Isabella, the queen of Castile, in 1469. Though some call Ferdinand the first King of Spain, it was actually his grandson, Charles I, who carried the title.

1. Battle of Waterloo
   Battle of Borodino
2. Battle of Austerlitz
   Battle of Friedland

Napoleon Bonaparte captured much of Europe during the height of his reign before many of his forces were destroyed while trying to gain hold of Russia. This led to his abdication of the throne in 1814, though he returned a year later before his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.

1. Wars of Italian Unification
   Salt War
2. Cretan War
   The First Crusade

As the persecution of Christians living in Jerusalem increased with the rise of the Seljuk Turks and pressure mounted on the Byzantine Empire, Pope Urban II decided to call other European nations for help. These Christian nations answered the call, sending thousands of troops to capture Jerusalem.

1. Augustus
   Nero
2. Constantine
   Tiberius

Prior to Constantine's conversion, Christians were largely persecuted across the Roman Empire, which favored pagan beliefs at the time. Constantine ended much of this persecution and even initiated programs that built churches and put bishops into power.

1. France
   Italy
2. Spain
   Portugal

The English had many early victories over France during the Hundred Years' War, even gaining the duchy of Guyenne after the Treaty of Calais was signed by King John. However, the French weren't accepting of their foreign occupants, and after years of fighting, they managed to regain their kingdom.

1. Greece
   Britain
2. Germany
   Norway

Despite conquering most of Britain, the Romans still faced resistance from Celtic tribes in the northern part of the country when Hadrian became emperor. To combat these "barbarians," as they were called, Hadrian ordered the wall be built by Roman soldiers with forts every few miles.

1. The Carthaginians
   The Huns
2. The Ottomans
   The Mongols

The Ottoman Empire was started by Osman I, who sought to expand the territory of the Turkish tribes he ruled over. Maintaining power for over 600 years, the Ottomans became an important center for science and art, as the empire provided stability for much of southeast Europe.

1. Fascism
   Chivalry
2. Feudalism
   Humanism

In an era of warfare and violence, the behavior of the warriors who took part in this bloodshed was not always admirable. Chivalry provided a set of rules for the knights who arose during this time to use their power in a more Christianly manner.

1. Scottland
   England
2. Germany
   Spain

Spain has a unique history in contrast to most other Western European countries because it was at times ruled by both Muslims and Christians. Scholars refer to the inner workings of how these groups, along with the Jews, lived together as La Convivencia.

1. Nicolaus Copernicus
   Johannes Kepler
2. Galileo Galilei
   Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton's Laws of Motions certainly changed the future of classical mechanics in Europe, but he is probably just as well known for his discovery of gravity. This significant discovery helped explain how planets move around the sun, a heated topic during his time.

1. Yedinstvo
   Mezhraiontsy
2. Bolsheviks
   Mensheviks

The Bolshevik Party came to power behind one of the most important figures in modern Russian history, Vladimir Lenin. Lenin, whose brother had been executed for his part in an assassination plot against Tsar Alexander III, was one of the more radical members of the party, demanding military action over more democratic solutions.

1. 1542
   1648
2. 1789
   1860

The start of the French Revolution in 1789 was only the beginning of a bloody conflict that would first engulf France and later all of Europe. However, the initials phases of the revolution brought an end to an oppressive feudal system led by King Louis XVI.

1. Twelve Tables
   Corpus Juris Civilis
2. Magna Carta
   Gortyn code

The King of England held almost absolute power prior to the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. This new law code set the terms for the king's power, becoming one of the first European constitutions to be outlined in writing.

1. Castles
   Farms
2. Monasteries
   Cities

With little knowledge of the Viking invaders, coastal monasteries across Britain had no defense when the raiders came. The Vikings favored these monasteries because they could launch quick attacks then sail back out to sea before an army could be raised to combat them.

1. 1939
   1940
2. 1941
   1942

By 1939, Germany had already begun rebuilding its military while shoring up its borders, signs that the country didn't plan on sticking to the peace agreements of WWI. Despite their knowledge of the threat, other European powers tried to negotiate rather than take military action, but their good faith ultimately backfired.

1. Roman high culture
   Roman civil wars
2. Roman expansion
   Roman peace

After the assassination of Julius Caesar, Rome was engulfed in a bitter civil war. An ambitious man, Augustus would use this chaos to seize power over the empire but also to bring about a period of stability that had been missing for some time.

1. The Hindenburg Line
   The Marginal Line
2. The Durand Line
   The Iron Curtain

With the threat of a nuclear war hanging over the world, tensions were at an all time high during the Cold War. The Iron Curtain provided at least some security for Russia, as well as an initial base for communism to spread.

1. Queen Victoria
   King George III
2. Queen Elizabeth I
   King William IV

Known as the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth I never had any children to take over the crown of England after her death. When she finally passed in 1603, King James VI of Scotland was given the crown, effectively ending the House of Tudor.

1. Alexei Leonov
   Sergei Korolev
2. Gherman Titov
   Yuri Gagarin

As the United States suffered one failure after another in the early space race, the Russians took the first major leap forward when they sent Yuri Gagarin on an orbit around the world. This would force the United States to turn its attention to landing on the moon, which finally happened in 1969.

1. William Wallace
   Robert the Bruce
2. Andrew Moray
   William the Hardy

John Comyn, who served as Guardian of Scotland, was one of the chief rivals of Robert the Bruce, as both men sought to liberate Scotland from the English. Bruce knew he had to eliminate his rival to secure the country for himself and killed him inside a church located in Dumfries, launching Scotland into a civil war.

1. Britain
   Russia
2. France
   Portugal

Russia was the first major European power to lose a war against an Asian country. The defeat was a huge blow for the Russian monarchy, which was already losing favor among its people.

1. The Rhine
   The Alps
2. The Danube
   The English Channel

Following in the footsteps of Charlemagne, Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Alps to defeat a competing army in Italy made up of Austrian forces. A few years after his Italian campaign, Bonaparte had himself crowned Emperor of the French, another move that mirrored Charlemagne.

1. The Visigoths
   The Franks
2. The Vandals
   The Alamanni

The history of the Franks can be traced back to the Roman Empire, when the Germanic tribe first terrorized the borders of the empire before finally mixing in with their Roman adversaries in these regions. After the Western Roman Empire fell, the Franks united much of Gaul under their rule.

1. Asia
   Africa
2. North America
   South America

Prior to its arrival in their own communities, Europeans heard stories of the Black Death that was running rampant throughout Asia, killing people in hordes. When the first signs of the disease showed up on ships, those infected were immediately sent away. It was, of course, too late.

1. Aristotle
   Plato
2. Socrates
   Democritus

When it comes to Western thought, you won't find a more influential figure than Aristotle. Though his works are littered with inaccuracies, Aristotle laid the groundwork for future generations who sought the truths of the world around them.

1. Treaty of the Succession
   Treaty of Tordesillas
2. Treaty of Madrid
   Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Tordesillas was agreed to by both Spain and Portugal despite their limited knowledge of the lands outside of Europe that the treaty detailed. The treaty also failed to take into account the other European nations who would seek foreign empires of their own, leading to future disputes.

1. World War I
   The Russian Revolution
2. Witch trials
   The Enlightenment

As the idea of witchcraft captivated Christian society, the witch hunt extended to areas outside of Europe, with one of the most famous examples being the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts. These trials led to the death of 19 people who were accused.